---HRM Assignment # 7---

"Human beings are the most important, potent and critical, resource of any organization, and yet the least understood and the worst managed of its resources" This phrase which describe the human works in the organization. Let me discuss the factors which affect the behavior of human in his profession.

Humans are an organization’s greatest assets; without them, everyday business functions such as managing cash flow, making business transactions, communicating through all forms of media, and dealing with customers could not be completed....humans and the potential they possess drive an organization. Today's organizations are continuously changing and organizational change impacts not only the business but also its employees.

However to exploit this resource it has to be managed and management of this particular resource depends on multiple factors, depending mostly on the size of the company human resource management works to ensure that employees are able to meet the organization’s goals management should maximize organizational effectiveness, human potential, individuals' capabilities, time, and talents.

The effect of globalization lately has shown the value in educating employees in competency development. The relevance of this globalization is the proficiency at which Human Resource work is conducted within an organization. Recent studies show that developing the competence level is in high demand in today’s society and therefore many companies have chosen to give its’ staff adequate opportunities to utilize their skills. In theory the basic hypothesis states that knowledge and competence within the workforce will be the key to success in the future rather than financial resources. The investment of this proficiency within the private and public sector on a short-term and long-term basis is necessary for each corporation in the future. A well functional organization has good insight in what demands a company should require and what competence the employees must have. During the 90’s many corporations faced several cut backs which resulted in the lack of inadequate training procedures regarding skill development for its employees. In this particular research, we have two unique corporations that have been studied for the importance HR work has on the competence development. Through interviews with correspondents working within the HR sector in global corporations, the results show that both companies view competence development as an important aspect of its’ respective success for the future. During the interviews both of the correspondents said that financial resources are not enough to give the employees the opportunity to develop their skills on a regular basis. Therefore the main responsibility is up to each individual to keep their respective knowledge up to date.
Human Needs And Their Fulfillment
Even though we are all different, we each have the same 6 basic human needs. These needs must be satisfied, otherwise we feel uncomfortable where we are, with our lives and ultimately with ourselves.

Defining roles and competencies
Competencies – what a person is capable of doing, rather than what they are doing – help address both behavioural and technical skills needed to define job expectations and requirements. They provide a common language and framework for those critical – but sometimes elusive – aspects of job performance and are an effective tool for communicating about performance because they help people frame expectations and goals in clear terms.

Therefore in order to experience true fulfillment and satisfaction in life, it is essential to work on fulfilling all your basic needs.

One of the major roles of a human resources department in a successful business involves a lot of observation and analysis from behind the scenes. Indeed, the intelligence of the human resources department often involves what can be likened to “crunching numbers.” Compiling complex data and metrics that follow the performance of individual employees, as the move through the workforce is an important task, which has helped human resources, work out crucial solutions to inefficiency, sagging profit margins and more.

Due to the sensitive nature of human relations and the work that human resources departments must carry out, discretion is a crucial element to this field. That’s because the management of performance can often involve tough decisions such as choosing who to let go, who to promote and who to hire. Keeping the decision making process behind closed doors is an ethical practice that breeds the least amount of contention possible.
But how are these decisions made? Nearly every employee today should be able to relate to the hiring process and the term review interviews that come with starting out and maintaining a job almost anywhere. Yet what the employee sees in these interviews is really just the tip of the iceberg in when it comes to the vast amount of work done by human resources specialists.

Indeed, performance management, message creation, job recruitment and promotion decisions take countless hours of observation and data analysis that result in the most beneficial decisions in the end. Just the 3 month review for new employees can reveal the fact that a lot of careful observation has gone into the job performance and training adaptation evaluation. This means that a human resources specialist has been taking notes and methodically charting employees’ progress in the most efficient and professional manner possible. It’s not that easy, yet the work is essential to any company’s optimized success.

Academic field of study concerned with human behavior in organizations; also called organizational psychology. It covers topics such as Motivation, Group Dynamics, leadership, organization structure, decision making, careers, conflict resolution, and Organizational Development. When this subject is taught in business schools, it is called organizational behavior; when it is taught in psychology departments, it is called organizational psychology.

The terms "corporate culture" and "organizational behavior" are sometimes used interchangeably, but in reality, there are differences between the two. Corporate culture encompasses the shared values, attitudes, standards, and beliefs and other characteristics that define an organization's operating philosophy. Organizational behavior, meanwhile, can be under-stood in some ways as the academic study of corporate culture and its various elements, as well as other important components of behavior such as organization structure and organization processes. Organizational behavior, said Gibson, Ivancevich, and Donnelly, is "the field of study that draws on theory, methods, and principles from various disciplines to learn about individual perceptions, values, learning capacities, and actions while working in groups and within the total organization; analyzing the external environment's effect on the organization and its human resources, missions, objectives, and strategies.…Effective managers know what to look for in terms of structure, process, and culture and how to under-stand what they find. Therefore, managers must develop diagnostic skills; they must be trained to identify conditions symptomatic of a problem requiring further attention. Problem indicators include declining profits, declining quantity or quality of work, increases in absenteeism or tardiness, and negative employee attitudes. Each of these problems is an issue of organizational behavior."

The role of the HR manager must parallel the needs of his or her changing organization. Successful organizations are becoming more adaptive, resilient, quick to change direction and customer-centered. Within this environment, the HR professional, who is considered necessary by line managers, is a strategic partner, an employee sponsor or advocate and a change mentor.

Strategic Partner
In today’s organizations, to guarantee their viability and ability to contribute, HR managers need to think of themselves as strategic partners. In this role, the HR person contributes to the development of and the accomplishment of the organization-wide business plan and objectives.
The HR business objectives are established to support the attainment of the overall strategic business plan and objectives. The tactical HR representative is deeply knowledgeable about the design of work systems in which people succeed and contribute. This strategic partnership impacts HR services such as the design of work positions; hiring; reward, recognition and strategic pay; performance development and appraisal systems; career and succession planning; and employee development.

Employee Advocate
As an employee sponsor or advocate, the HR manager plays an integral role in organizational success via his knowledge about and advocacy of people. This advocacy includes expertise in how to create a work environment in which people will choose to be motivated, contributing, and happy.
Fostering effective methods of goal setting, communication and empowerment through responsibility, builds employee ownership of the organization. The HR professional helps establish the organizational culture and climate in which people have the competency, concern and commitment to serve customers well.
In this role, the HR manager provides employee development opportunities, employee assistance programs, gainsharing and profit-sharing strategies, organization development interventions, due process approaches to problem solving and regularly scheduled communication opportunities.

Change Champion
The constant evaluation of the effectiveness of the organization results in the need for the HR professional to frequently champion change. Both knowledge about and the ability to execute successful change strategies make the HR professional exceptionally valued. Knowing how to link change to the strategic needs of the organization will minimize employee dissatisfaction and resistance to change.
The HR professional contributes to the organization by constantly assessing the effectiveness of the HR function. He also sponsors change in other departments and in work practices. To promote the overall success of his organization, he champions the identification of the organizational mission, vision, values, goals and action plans. Finally, he helps determine the measures that will tell his organization how well it is succeeding in all of this.


Sources:
http://www.projectsparadise.com/human-resource-competence-development/
http://www.hrvillage.com/human-resources/role.htm
http://humanresources.about.com/od/hrbasicsfaq/a/hr_role.htm

---MIS Assignment # 8---

As a student I may not know the real meaning of Out-source position and In-source position. But as I surf the net I found out the terms, advantages and disadvantages of this matter. Let me first discuss my chosen position which stands for Out-source.

There are many arguing that outsourcing jobs to other countries is taking jobs away from people of this country. This is a major concern to most; however, this is not the topic most under debate in most organizations today. In just about every major company, upper level management is meeting on how to increase the value of there company. Outsourcing is the topic under debate. Top executives are researching this topic and whether they should make (in-house) or buy (outsource). Let us look at the different types of outsourcing. Also , let examine the problems so many companies have with this decision and look at a strategic sourcing model that can aide them in making this decision.

Outsourcing is subcontracting a process, such as product design or manufacturing, to a third-party company. The decision to outsource is often made in the interest of lowering cost or making better use of time and energy costs, redirecting or conserving energy directed at the competencies of a particular business, or to make more efficient use of land, labor, capital, (information) technology and resources. Outsourcing became part of the business lexicon during the 1980s. It is essentially a division of labour. Out sourcing in the information technology field has two meanings. One is to commission the development of an application to another organization, usually a company that specializes in the development of this type of application. The other is to hire the services of another company to manage all or parts of the services that otherwise would be rendered by an IT unit of the organization. The latter concept might not include development of new applications. Outsourcing also allows companies to focus on other business issues while having the details taken care of by outside experts. This means that a large amount of resources and attention, which might fall on the shoulders of management professionals, can be used for more important, broader issues within the company. The specialized company that handles the outsourced work is often streamlined, and often has world-class capabilities and access to new technology that a company couldn't afford to buy on their own. Plus, if a company is looking to expand, outsourcing is a cost-effective way to start building foundations in other countries.

There are some disadvantages to outsourcing as well. One of these is that outsourcing often eliminates direct communication between a company and its clients. This prevents a company from building solid relationships with their customers, and often leads to dissatisfaction on one or both sides. There is also the danger of not being able to control some aspects of the company, as outsourcing may lead to delayed communications and project implementation. Any sensitive information is more vulnerable, and a company may become very dependent upon its outsource providers, which could lead to problems should the outsource provider back out on their contract suddenly.
While outsourcing may prove highly beneficial for many companies, it also has many drawbacks. It is important that each individual company accurately assess their needs to determine if outsourcing is a viable option.


Overview
Outsourcing involves the transfer of the management and/or day-to-day execution of an entire business function to an external service provider. The client organization and the supplier enter into a contractual agreement that defines the transferred services. Under the agreement the supplier acquires the means of production in the form of a transfer of people, assets and other resources from the client. The client agrees to procure the services from the supplier for the term of the contract. Business segments typically outsourced include information technology, human resources, facilities, real estate management, and accounting. Many companies also outsource customer support and call center functions like telemarketing, CAD drafting, customer service, market research, manufacturing, designing, web development, print-to-mail, content writing, ghostwriting and engineering. Offshoring is the type of outsourcing in which the buyer organization belongs to another country.

Outsourcing and offshoring are used interchangeably in public discourse despite important technical differences. Outsourcing involves contracting with a supplier, which may or may not involve some degree of offshoring. Offshoring is the transfer of an organizational function to another country, regardless of whether the work is outsourced or stays within the same corporation/company.
Multisourcing refers to large outsourcing agreements (predominantly IT). Multisourcing is a framework to enable different parts of the client business to be sourced from different suppliers. This requires a governance model that communicates strategy, clearly defines responsibility and has end-to-end integration.
Activities for outsourcing
Research & Development
The competitive pressures on firms to bring out new products at an ever rapid pace to meet market needs are increasing. As such, the pressures on the R&D department are increasing. In order to alleviate the pressure, firms have to either increase R&D budgets or find ways to utilize the resources in a more productive way. There are situations when a firm may consider outsourcing some of its R&D work to a contract research organizations or universities.

Reasons why a firm could consider outsourcing are:
• new product design does not work
• project time and cost overruns
• loss of key staff
• competitive response
• problems of quality/yield.

The key drivers for R&D outsourcing are emerging mass markets and availability of expertise in the field. In this context, the two most populous countries in the world, China and India, provide huge pools from which to find talent. Both countries produce over 200,000 engineers and science graduates each year. Moreover both countries are low cost sourcing countries. Other strategic drivers for outsourcing R&D are access to expertise and intellectual property, filling gaps in the capabilities of the R&D function, managing risk better, reducing the time to market, and focusing on the core competence or activities of the firm.


Reasons for outsourcing
Organizations that outsource are seeking to realize benefits or address the following issues:
• Cost savings. The lowering of the overall cost of the service to the business. This will involve reducing the scope, defining quality levels, re-pricing, re-negotiation, cost re-structuring. Access to lower cost economies through offshoring called "labor arbitrage" generated by the wage gap between industrialized and developing nations.
• Focus on Core Business. Resources (for example investment, people, and infrastructure) are focused on developing the core business. For example often organizations outsource their IT support to specilaised IT services companies.
• Cost restructuring. Operating leverage is a measure that compares fixed costs to variable costs. Outsourcing changes the balance of this ratio by offering a move from fixed to variable cost and also by making variable costs more predictable.
• Improve quality. Achieve a step change in quality through contracting out the service with a new service level agreement.
• Knowledge. Access to intellectual property and wider experience and knowledge.
• Contract. Services will be provided to a legally binding contract with financial penalties and legal redress. This is not the case with internal services.
• Operational expertise. Access to operational best practice that would be too difficult or time consuming to develop in-house.
• Access to talent. Access to a larger talent pool and a sustainable source of skills, in particular in science and engineering.
• Capacity management. An improved method of capacity management of services and technology where the risk in providing the excess capacity is borne by the supplier.
• Catalyst for change. An organization can use an outsourcing agreement as a catalyst for major step change that can not be achieved alone. The outsourcer becomes a Change agent in the process.
• Enhance capacity for innovation. Companies increasingly use external knowledge service providers to supplement limited in-house capacity for product innovation.
• Reduce time to market. The acceleration of the development or production of a product through the additional capability brought by the supplier.
• Commodification. The trend of standardizing business processes, IT Services and application services enabling businesses to intelligently buy at the right price. Allows a wide range of businesses access to services previously only available to large corporations.
• Risk management. An approach to risk management for some types of risks is to partner with an outsourcer who is better able to provide the mitigation.
• Venture Capital. Some countries match government funds venture capital with private venture capital for startups that start businesses in their country.
• Tax Benefit. Countries offer tax incentives to move manufacturing operations to counter high corporate taxes within another country.

Criticisms of outsourcing

Quality Risks
Quality Risk is the propensity for a product or service to be defective, due to operations-related issues. Quality risk in outsourcing is driven by a list of factors. One such factor is opportunism by suppliers due to misaligned incentives between buyer and supplier, information asymmetry, high asset specificity, or high supplier switching costs. Other factors contributing to quality risk in outsourcing are poor buyer-supplier communication, lack of supplier capabilities/resources/capacity, or buyer-supplier contract enforceability. Two main concepts must be considered when considering observability as it related to quality risks in outsourcing: the concepts of testability and criticality.
Quality fade is the deliberate and secretive reduction in the quality of labor in order to widen profit margins. The downward changes in human capital are subtle but progressive, and usually unnoticeable by the out sourcer/customer. The initial interview meets requirements, however, with subsequent support, more and more of the support team are replaced with novice or less experienced workers. India IT shops will continue to reduce the quality of human capital, under the pressure of drying up labor supply and upward trend of salary, pushing the quality limits. Such practices are hard to detect, as customers may just simply give up seeking help from the help desk. However, the overall customer satisfaction will be reduced greatly over time. Unless the company constantly conducts customer satisfaction surveys, they may eventually be caught in a surprise of customer churn, and when they find out the root cause, it could be too late. In such cases, it can be hard to dispute the legal contract with the India outsourcing company, as their staff are now trained in the process and the original staff made redundant. In the end, the company that outsources is worse off than before it outsourced its workforce to India.

Public opinion
There is a strong public opinion regarding outsourcing (especially when combined with offshoring) that outsourcing damages a local labor market. Outsourcing is the transfer of the delivery of services which affects both jobs and individuals. It is difficult to dispute that outsourcing has a detrimental effect on individuals who face job disruption and employment insecurity; however, its supporters believe that outsourcing should bring down prices, providing greater economic benefit to all. There are legal protections in the European Union regulations called the Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment). Labor laws in the United States are not as protective as those in the European Union. On June 26 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, called for the United States to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much and can no longer rely on consumer spending to drive demand.

Language skills
In the area of call centers end-user-experience is deemed to be of lower quality when a service is outsourced. This is exacerbated when outsourcing is combined with off-shoring to regions where the first language and culture are different. The questionable quality is particularly evident when call centers that service the public are outsourced and offshored.
The public generally find linguistic features such as accents; word use and phraseology different which may make call center agents difficult to understand. The visual clues that are present in face-to-face encounters are missing from the call center interactions and this also may lead to misunderstandings and difficulties.
In addition to language and accent differences, a lack of local social and geographic knowledge is often present, leading to misunderstandings or mis-communications.

Social responsibility
Outsourcing sends jobs to the lower-income areas where work is being outsourced to, which provides jobs in these areas and has a net equalizing effect on the overall distribution of wealth. Some argue that the outsourcing of jobs (particularly off-shore) exploits the lower paid workers. A contrary view is that more people are employed and benefit from paid work. Despite this argument, domestic workers displaced by such equalization are proportionately unable to outsource their own costs of housing, food and transportation.
On the issue of high-skilled labor, such as computer programming, some argue that it is unfair to both the local and off-shore programmers to outsource the work simply because the foreign pay rate is lower. On the other hand, one can argue that paying the higher-rate for local programmers is wasteful, or charity, or simply overpayment. If the end goal of buyers is to pay less for what they buy, and for sellers it is to get a higher price for what they sell, there is nothing automatically unethical about choosing the cheaper of two products, services, or employees.
Social responsibility is also reflected in the costs of benefits provided to workers. Companies outsourcing jobs effectively transfer the cost of retirement and medical benefits to the countries where the services are outsourced. This represents a significant reduction in total cost of labor for the outsourcing company. A side effect of this trend is the reduction in salaries and benefits at home in the occupations most directly impacted by outsourcing.

Quality of service
Quality of service is measured through a service level agreement (SLA) in the outsourcing contract. In poorly defined contracts there is no measure of quality or SLA defined. Even when an SLA exists it may not be to the same level as previously enjoyed. This may be due to the process of implementing proper objective measurement and reporting which is being done for the first time. It may also be lower quality through design to match the lower price.
There are a number of stakeholders who are affected and there is no single view of quality. The CEO may view the lower quality acceptable to meet the business needs at the right price. The retained management team may view quality as slipping compared to what they previously achieved. The end consumer of the service may also receive a change in service that is within agreed SLAs but is still perceived as inadequate. The supplier may view quality in purely meeting the defined SLAs regardless of perception or ability to do better.
Quality in terms of end-user-experience is best measured through customer satisfaction questionnaires which are professionally designed to capture an unbiased view of quality. Surveys can be one of research. This allows quality to be tracked over time and also for corrective action to be identified and taken.

Staff turnover
The staff turnover of employee who originally transferred to the outsourcer is a concern for many companies. Turnover is higher under an outsourcer and key company skills may be lost with retention outside of the control of the company.
In outsourcing offshore there is an issue of staff turnover in the outsourcer companies call centers. It is quite normal for such companies to replace its entire workforce each year in a call center. This inhibits the build-up of employee knowledge and keeps quality at a low level.

Company knowledge
Outsourcing could lead to communication problems with transferred employees. For example, before transfer staff have access to broadcast company e-mail informing them of new products, procedures etc. Once in the outsourcing organization the same access may not be available. Also to reduce costs, some outsource employees may not have access to e-mail, but any information which is new is delivered in team meetings.
Failure to deliver business transformation
Business transformation has traditionally been promised by outsourcing suppliers, but they have usually failed to deliver. In a commoditised market where any half-decent service provider can do things cheaper and faster, smart vendors have promised a second wave of benefits that will improve the client’s business outcomes. According to Vinay Couto of Booz & Company “Clients always use the service provider’s ability to achieve transformation as a key selection criterion. It’s always in the top three and sometimes number one.” Often vendors have promised transformation on the basis of wider domain expertise that they didn’t really have, though Couto also says that this is often down to client’s unwillingness to invest in transformation once an outsourcing contract is in place.

Productivity
Offshore outsourcing for the purpose of saving cost can often have a negative influence on the real productivity of a company. Rather than investing in technology to improve productivity, companies gain non-real productivity by hiring fewer people locally and outsourcing work to less productive facilities offshore that appear to be more productive simply because the workers are paid less. Sometimes, this can lead to strange contradictions where workers in a developing country using hand tools can appear to be more productive than a U.S. worker using advanced computer controlled machine tools, simply because their salary appears to be less in terms of U.S. dollars.
In contrast, increases in real productivity are the result of more productive tools or methods of operating that make it possible for a worker to do more work. Non-real productivity gains are the result of shifting work to lower paid workers, often without regards to real productivity. The net result of choosing non-real over real productivity gain is that the company falls behind and obsoletes itself overtime rather than making investments in real productivity.

Security
Before outsourcing an organization is responsible for the actions of all their staff and liable for their actions. When these same people are transferred to an outsourcer they may not change desk but their legal status has changed. They no-longer are directly employed or responsible to the organization. This causes legal, security and compliance issues that need to be addressed through the contract between the client and the suppliers. This is one of the most complex areas of outsourcing and requires a specialist third party adviser.
Fraud is a specific security issue that is criminal activity whether it is by employees or the supplier staff. However, it can be disputed that the fraud is more likely when outsourcers are involved, for example credit card theft when there is scope for fraud by credit card cloning. In April 2005, a high-profile case involving the theft of $350,000 from four Citibank customers occurred when call center workers acquired the passwords to customer accounts and transferred the money to their own accounts opened under fictitious names. Citibank did not find out about the problem until the American customers noticed discrepancies with their accounts and notified the bank.



Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outsourcing#Overview

---MIS Assignment # 7--

Infrastructures
“We have built airports of international standard, upgraded domestic airports,
Built seaports and the Roll-on/Roll-off System. I ask Congress for a Philippine
Transport Security Law..”

Opinions:This would give easier transportations in every citizen in the country. The implemented project of President Arroyo was indeed contribute a sudden change in transporting products and even transporting our own self. The built international airports standard boost our confident to travel without any hesitations.

Roll-on/roll-off (RORO or ro-ro) ships are vessels designed to carry wheeled cargo such as automobiles, trucks, semi-trailer trucks, trailers or railroad cars that are driven on and off the ship on their own wheels. This is in contrast to lo-lo (lift on-lift off) vessels which use a crane to load and unload cargo. While the characteristics of seagoing RORO car ferries have inherent risks, there are benefits to its seaworthiness.

Banking System
“To that end, we improved our banking system to complement its inherent
Conservatism. The Bangko Sentral has been prudent. Thank you, Governor
Tetangco, being so effective. The BSP will be even more effective
If Congress will amend its Charter..”

Opinions:In dealing with improving the bank system in the Philippines, we guarantee that it is more accurate and appropriate to use by. This would help million of Filipinos in complementing their inherent conservatism. Through improving the system of many companies here in the country, we are to take a big step towards global competition in the field of Information Technology. This would not help us feel better but as well us to be more confident about the saving of money of the country.

They were more efficient in certain banking aspects such as money transfers and current accounts, and borrowing loans and opening saving deposits. Banks adopt several means of acquiring assets or financing projects and these can be categorized in three areas: investment, trade and lending.

Automated Electronic System
“As the seeds of fundamental political reform are planted, let us address the
highest exercise of democracy -- voting! In 2001, I said we would finance fully
automated elections. We got it, thanks to Congress..”

Opinions:Well, basically automated elections are more convenient compare to manually done. They get a tally immediately, rather than having to count votes by hand. Philippine election officials can learn how to run automated elections properly. Primarily by designing election machines that make sense to the average Filipino voter, and relying on the results of sustained testing for any necessary revisions to the system. Automated voting (sometimes referred to as electronic or e-voting) technologies are increasingly used in elections across the world, particularly because they are often seen as symbolic of a country’s level of modernization.

The possibilities for rapid aggregation and analysis of results, as well as potentially greater accuracy, have all added to the attractiveness of computer-based voting equipment. There is little doubt that the ability to quickly publish results can be of particular advantage in conflict and post-conflict scenarios, where a prolonged period of counting can heighten tensions and reduce confidence in the final results. The potential to remove some traditional elements of unintentional voter error or intentional fraud can also contribute to greater confidence

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RORO#Benefits
http://rtvm.gov.ph/attachments/1506_SONA%202009%20(As%20Delivered%20Tagalog-English%20version).pdf

---HRM Assignment # 6---

It is my understanding that in the past 200 years, technology has advanced at an astonishing rate. Man’s advances in modern science have led to several cures for once common fatal diseases. I believe fundamentally, as humans, we have a desire to live eternally. In part, technology exists for that reason. Also, technology exists to “better our lives”. Just how much “better” our lives have become over the centuries could be argued? I see two sides to this issue. One train of thought says that technology has brought us leisure, comfort and knowledge. Another train of thought proclaims that we have become slaves to our jobs and the dependence of technology. Cogs in a great combine.

The technology which surrounds almost everyone in the modern society, affects both work and leisure activities. Technology contains information that many would rather it did not have. It influences minds in good and bad ways, and it allows people to share information which they would otherwise not be able to attain. Even if a person does not own a computer or have credit cards, there is information on a computer somewhere about everyone. The technology which is just now beginning to be manipulated and harnessed is affecting the minds of small children and adolescents in ways that could be harmful. It is affecting our immediate future. It also gives another form of communication and exchange of information which was not available before, information that is both good and bad. Technology is one of the principal driving forces of the future; it is transforming our lives and shaping our future at rates unprecedented in history, with profound implications which we can't even begin to see or understand.

Many different elements affect how satisfied we are with our lives. The impact of technology on these elements can change how safe, healthy and happy people feel. Throughout history, people have looked for better ways to meet their needs and to satisfy their expectations. Technology has improved the way people feed, clothe and shelter themselves. Technology has also changed other aspects of everyday life, such as health care, education, job satisfaction, and leisure time activities. People have used technology since them first chipped stone blades to improve their hunting. Yet some people call the current age the Technological Age because of society's dependence on technology. For the first time in human history, almost all the goods and services people use depend on technology.

The products of technology are available to almost everyone in society. The economy of a country influences how the people of the county live. Technology is often considered the key to a nation's economic growth. Most economists would say that it is one of the factors in economic growth, but they would probably disagree about its importance. Many economists think that if technology sparks growth in one sector of the economy in the form of increased productivity, growth will also occur in other sectors of the economy. Jobs may be lost in one industry, such as agriculture but new jobs may emerge in other sectors of the economy. There may be more jobs or, in some case, completely new kinds of jobs. Technology may also be used to solve urgent problems.

Our growing population is using up infinite supplies of natural resources. Innovations in technology can allow for more efficient use of limited or scarce resources. More products might be made from the same amount of raw material using new techniques. Technology can increase productivity to help countries compete with other countries in selling goods and services. Some say that without technological improvements, the economy would grow slowly or not at all.

What is Corporation?

Corporations exist as a product of corporate law, and their rules balance the interests of the management who operate the corporation; creditors who loan it goods, services or money; shareholders that invest their capital and the employees who contribute their labor. People work together in corporations to produce value and generate income. In modern times, corporations have become an increasingly dominant part of economic life. People rely on corporations for employment, for their goods and services, for the value of the pensions, for economic growth and social development.

The defining feature of a corporation is its legal independence from the people who create it. If a corporation fails, shareholders normally only stand to lose their investment and employees will lose their jobs, but neither will be further liable for debts that remain owing to the corporation's creditors unless they have separately varied this, e.g. with personal guarantees. This rule is called limited liability, and it is why the names of corporations in the UK end with "Ltd.".

The Great Transformation
Sparked by new technologies, particularly the Internet, the corporation is undergoing a radical transformation that is nothing less than a new Industrial Revolution. This time around, the revolution is reaching every corner of the globe and in the process, rewriting the rules laid down by Sloan, Henry Ford, and other Industrial Age giants. The 21st century corporation that emerges will in many ways be the polar opposite of the organizations they helped shape.

The New Leadership
In recent years, top corporate executives have reaped a pay bonanza without precedent in the long and sweaty history of working for a living. Is today's boss overpaid? Probably, but to whom much has been given, even more will be expected. The job of leading a company has never been more demanding, and it will only get tougher in the 21st century.

The Enduring Corporation
Government also expects much more from the corporation than it did a generation ago. For some time now, corporations have been America's largest distributors of health care and private pension benefits. In recent years government also has increasingly looked to business to regulate employee behavior in the workplace in new ways, giving rise to the so-called nanny corporation.

The Ecosystem
The corporate ecosystem of the 21st century will be characterized by a blurring of once-distinct boundaries: between public and private, foreign and domestic, insider and outsider, friend and foe. The effect will be liberating in many ways. Corporations will be freer to pursue opportunity wherever in the world they find it, and to exploit it according to the requirements of circumstance, not the blind dictates of tradition. Outsourcing will become ever more prevalent, transforming many corporations into superefficient, virtual facsimiles of their old selves. But success will not come easy in this brave new world.

Designs for the Future
Few institutions embody their era as strikingly as the corporation. In form and function, it reflects the defining technologies and social organization of its time. This is as true of the physical manifestation as internal configuration, which is why corporations have captured the imagination of so many visionaries, especially architects.

Sources:
http://www.businessweek.com/2000/00_35/b3696001.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21st_Century

---MIS Assignment # 6---

A cohesive and robust IT infrastructure is of paramount importance for the development of any company. A successful IT department must be able to meet increasing business driven demands, whilst preparing for changing business dynamics in the future.

If I were hired by the university president as an IT consultant, I would you suggest to use or develop such Infrastructures in University. This is to improve not only the system of the University but as well as transactions, internet access and even operations made by the staff.

We define information technology (IT) to include not only computer technology (hardware and software) for processing and storing information, but also communications technology for transmitting information. Advances in computer and communications technologies have enabled firms to pursue IT investments. This will help them to gain maximum advantage from their knowledge assets-to leverage the knowledge of individual employees to the benefit of other employees and the organization as a whole. Businesses have strived to achieve a competitive advantage in the past by competing in one of two ways: 1. By Cost- by being a low-cost producer of a good and service 2. By Differentiation of a product or service- by competing on customer perceptions of product quality and customer support services.

You know, there is not all that much I would actually change about this university. Sure we could use some better facilities and the more diversity the better, but those changes have to take place over time, sometimes a long time. For now I am content with the prospect of throwing out ideas used by other universities to either increase student recruitment or enhance the image surrounding our college, that has without doubt been tarnished in past years.

Infrastructure can be defined as the basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society or enterprise, or the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function. The term typically refers to the technical structures that support a society, such as roads, water supply, sewers, power grids, telecommunications, and so forth. An underlying base or foundation especially for an organization or system. The basic facilities, services, and installations needed for the functioning of a community or society, such as transportation and communications systems, water and power lines, and public institutions including schools, post offices, and prisons. It s the set of interconnected structural elements that provide the framework for supporting the entire structure.

In other applications, the term infrastructure may refer to information technology, informal and formal channels of communication, software development tools, political and social networks, or beliefs held by members of particular groups. Still underlying these more conceptual uses is the idea that infrastructure provides organizing structure and support for the system or organization it serves, whether it is a city, a nation, a corporation, or a collection of people with common interests.

In the present world, which is dynamic and knowledge based, universities have a much wider role to play in creating, preserving, organizing, transmitting and applying knowledge. Modern educational technologies developed from information technology will certainly change in terms of access, interaction, curriculum and instruction etc. The physical locations and facilities will be less important in defining a college or a university due to the easy on-line access of the educational resources of a higher educational institution to the urban as well as rural public. This will provide opportunities to our high school graduated youths from rural areas as well as urban youths to access higher education without a need to forgo their working and earning opportunities to physically attend a college or a university. So universities need to adopt modern education technologies to provide increase access to knowledge resources.

Online technologies are going to make traditional class room teaching less important in many subjects except where it is absolutely necessary. Therefore interaction between teachers and students will have to play a vital role in imparting higher quality education. This means that more frequent and effective internal mechanism of interaction between university faculty and students need to be developed. This, in turn, causes an external relationship between universities and non-university communities. Such external relationship will necessitate universities to respond quickly to the changes in the outside world. Therefore a mechanism to increase both the internal and external interaction efficiencies has to be developed.

The curriculum and instruction are going to be changed greatly. Because the new technologies make the learning and teaching easier, the contents of some courses will be expanded, a considerable number of new courses will be generated, interdisciplinary courses and studies will be more possible. Students and faculties will contribute together to the development of curriculum.

Modern higher education technologies will also change present instructional methods to a more effective one. The faculties will have to adopt an instructional method best suited to the class of students whom they target or to develop new methods best suited for them based on their feedback. Video conferencing techniques, simulators and on-line access to many practical training kits will revolutionize instructional methods. Information Technology infrastructure in the campus provide quality higher education to students and to provide proper academic and research environment to support University’s endeavor for excellence.

More importantly, these technologies will provide the education and knowledge for these people to become prosperous nations that can fend for themselves and provide for their people. Transfers of technology from the developed world to the developing world will improve the standard of living, increase efficiency in production and become a base for economic growth, without this transfer these countries will fall further into poverty and economic ruin, with little hope for survival. For most people of the developed world, the developing world is not something they concern themselves with; they do not see it everyday and therefore it does not exist. This could not be farther from the truth. The developing world is in need of help but the developed world constantly turns a blind eye. Our current love affair with technology may provide the answer for underdeveloped nations problems. The standard of living is so low in these countries that our everyday conveniences are a struggle for the entire population to obtain. If the developed nations could meet these base needs, these countries may be able to overcome their current problems. The first issue that must be dealt with is the unsatisfactory health care and medical technology.

Most IT organizations still install and maintain computers the same way the automotive industry built cars in the early 1900's: An individual craftsman manually manipulates a machine into being, and manually maintains it afterward. This is expensive. The automotive industry discovered first mass production, then mass customization using standard tooling.

The standards and practices described here are the standarized tooling needed for mass customization within IT. This tooling enables:
• Scalable, flexible, and rapid deployments and changes
• Cost effective, timely return on IT investment
• Low labor headcount
• Secure, trustworthy computing environments
• Reliable enterprise infrastructures

This are the 5 services which Information Technology Infrastructures can give to the University:
1. Service Strategy
As the center and origin point of the ITIL Service Lifecycle, the Service Strategy volume provides guidance on clarification and prioritization of service provider investments in services. More generally, Service Strategy focuses on helping IT organizations improve and develop over the long term. In both cases, Service Strategy relies largely upon a market-driven approach. Key topics covered include service value definition, business case development, service assets, market analysis, and service provider types. Processes covered include service portfolio management, demand management, and IT financial management.

2. Service Design
The ITIL Service Design volume provides good practice guidance on the design of IT services, processes, and other aspects of the service management effort. Significantly, design within ITIL is understood to encompass all elements relevant to technology service delivery, rather than focusing solely on design of the technology itself. As such, Service Design addresses how a planned service solution interacts with the larger business and technical environments, service management systems required to support the service, processes which interacts with the service, technology, and architecture required to support the service, and the supply chain required to support the planned service. Within ITIL, design work for an IT service is aggregated into a single Service Design Package (SDP). Service Design Packages, along with other information about services, are managed within the service catalog. Processes covered in this volume include service level management, availability management, capacity management, IT service continuity management, information security management, supplier management, and service catalog management.

3. Service Transition
Service transition relates to the delivery of services required by the business into live/operational use, and often encompasses the "project" side of IT rather than "BAU" (Business As Usual). This area also covers topics such as managing changes to the "BAU" environment. Topics include Service Asset and Configuration Management, Transition Planning and Support, Release and deployment management, Change Management, Knowledge Management, as well as the key roles of staff engaging in Service Transition.

4. Service Operation
Best practice for achieving the delivery of agreed levels of services both to end-users and the customers (where "customers" refer to those individuals who pay for the service and negotiate the SLAs). Service Operations is the part of the lifecycle where the services and value is actually directly delivered. Also the monitoring of problems and balance between service reliability and cost etc are considered. Topics include balancing conflicting goals (e.g. reliability vs cost etc), Event management, incident management, problem management, request fulfillment, access management, and service desk. The functions include technical management, application management, operations management and Service Desk as well as, responsibilities for staff engaging in Service Operation.

5. Continual Service Improvement (CSI)
Aligning and realigning IT services to changing business needs (because standstill implies decline).
The goal of Continual Service Improvement is to align and realign IT Services to changing business needs by identifying and implementing improvements to the IT services that support the Business Processes. The perspective of CSI on improvement is the business perspective of service quality, even though CSI aims to improve process effectiveness, efficiency and cost effectiveness of the IT processes through the whole lifecycle. To manage improvement, CSI should clearly define what should be controlled and measured.
CSI needs to be treated just like any other service practice. There needs to be upfront planning, training and awareness, ongoing scheduling, roles created, ownership assigned, and activities identified to be successful. CSI must be planned and scheduled as process with defined activities, inputs, outputs, roles and reporting.

Infrastructure Management

ICT Infrastructure Management processes recommend best practice for requirements analysis, planning, design, deployment and ongoing operations management and technical support of an ICT Infrastructure. ("ICT" is an acronym for "Information and Communication Technology".)
The Infrastructure Management processes describe those processes within ITIL that directly relate to the ICT equipment and software that is involved in providing ICT services to customers.
• ICT Design and Planning • ICT Deployment
• ICT Operations
• ICT Technical Support
These disciplines are less well understood than those of Service Management and therefore often some of their content is believed to be covered 'by implication' in Service Management disciplines.

In information technology and on the Internet, infrastructure is the physical hardware used to interconnect computers and users. Infrastructure includes the transmission media, including telephone lines, cable television lines, and satellites and antennas, and also the routers, aggregators, repeaters, and other devices that control transmission paths. Infrastructure also includes the software used to send, receive, and manage the signals that are transmitted.

In some usages, infrastructure refers to interconnecting hardware and software and not to computers and other devices that are interconnected. However, to some information technology users, infrastructure is viewed as everything that supports the flow and processing of information.
Infrastructure companies play a significant part in evolving the Internet, both in terms of where the interconnections are placed and made accessible and in terms of how much information can be carried how quickly.

Service Support
The Service Support discipline is focused on the User of the ICT services and is primarily concerned with ensuring that they have access to the appropriate services to support the business functions.
To a business, customers and users are the entry point to the process model. They get involved in service support by:
• Asking for changes
• Needing communication, updates
• Having difficulties, queries.
• Real process delivery

The service desk is the single contact point for customer’s problems. If there is a direct solution, it tries to resolve the problem. If not, it creates an incident.
Service Desk / Service Request Management
Tasks include handling incidents and requests, and providing an interface for other ITSM processes.
• Single Point of Contact (SPOC) and not necessarily the First Point of Contact (FPOC)
• There is a single point of entry and exit
• Easier for Customers
• Data Integrity
• Communication channel is streamlined

The primary functions of the Service Desk are:
• Incident Control: life cycle management of all Service Requests
• Communication: keeping the customer informed of progress and advising on workarounds

The Service Desk function is known under various names .
• Call Center: main emphasis on professionally handling large call volumes of telephone-based transactions
• Help Desk: manage, co-ordinate and resolve incidents as quickly as possible
• Service Desk: not only handles incidents, problems and questions but also provides an interface for other activities such as change requests, maintenance contracts, software licenses, service level management, configuration management, availability management, Financial Management and IT Services Continuity Management
The three types of structure that can be considered are:
• Local Service Desk: to meet local business needs - is practical only until multiple locations requiring support services are involved
• Central Service Desk: for organizations having multiple locations - reduces operational costs and improves usage of available resources
• Virtual Service Desk: for organizations having multi-country locations - can be situated and accessed from anywhere in the world due to advances in network performance and telecommunications, reducing operational costs and improving usage of available resources

Incident Management
The goal of Incident Management is to restore normal service operation as quickly as possible and minimize the adverse effect on business operations, thus ensuring that the best possible levels of service quality and availability are maintained. 'Normal service operation' is defined here as service operation within Service Level Agreement (SLA) limits.
Problem Management
The goal of 'Problem Management' is to resolve the root cause of incidents and thus to minimize the adverse impact of incidents and problems on business that are caused by errors within the IT infrastructure, and to prevent recurrence of incidents related to these errors. A `problem' is an unknown underlying cause of one or more incidents, and a `known error' is a problem that is successfully diagnosed and for which either a work-around or a permanent resolution has been identified. The CCTA defines problems and known errors as follows:

The problem management process is intended to reduce the number and severity of incidents and problems on the business, and report it in documentation to be available for the first-line and second line of the help desk. The proactive process identifies and resolves problems before incidents occur. These activities are:
• Trend analysis;
• Targeting support action;
• Providing information to the organization.

The Error Control Process is an iterative process to diagnose known errors until they are eliminated by the successful implementation of a change under the control of the Change Management process.
The Problem Control Process aims to handle problems in an efficient way. Problem control identifies the root cause of incidents and reports it to the service desk. Other activities are:
• Problem identification and recording;
• Problem classification;
• Problem investigation and diagnosis.

Change Management
The goal of Change Management is to ensure that standardized methods and procedures are used for efficient handling of all changes,
The main aims of Change Management are:
• Minimal disruption of services
• Reduction in back-out activities
• Economic utilization of resources involved in the change

Change Management Terminology
• Change: the addition, modification or removal of CIs
• Request for Change (RFC): form used to record details of a request for a change and is sent as an input to Change Management by the Change Requestor
• Forward Schedule of Changes (FSC): schedule that contains details of all forthcoming Changes

Release Management
Release Management is used for platform-independent and automated distribution of software and hardware, including license controls across the entire IT infrastructure. Proper software and hardware control ensures the availability of licensed, tested, and version-certified software and hardware, which functions as intended when introduced into existing infrastructure. Quality control during the development and implementation of new hardware and software is also the responsibility of Release Management. This guarantees that all software meets the demands of the business processes. The goals of release management are:
• Plan the rollout of software
• Design and implement procedures for the distribution and installation of changes to IT systems
• Effectively communicate and manage expectations of the customer during the planning and rollout of new releases
• Control the distribution and installation of changes to IT systems
The focus of release management is the protection of the live environment and its services through the use of formal procedures and checks.

Release Categories
A Release consists of the new or changed software and/or hardware required to implement approved changes
Releases are categorized as:
• Major software releases and hardware upgrades, normally containing large amounts of new functionality, some of which may make intervening fixes to problems redundant. A major upgrade or release usually supersedes all preceding minor upgrades, releases and emergency fixes.
• Minor software releases and hardware upgrades, normally containing small enhancements and fixes, some of which may have already been issued as emergency fixes. A minor upgrade or release usually supersedes all preceding emergency fixes.
• Emergency software and hardware fixes, normally containing the corrections to a small number of known problems.

Releases can be divided based on the release unit into:
• Delta Release: is a release of only that part of the software which has been changed. For example, security patches.
• Full Release: means the entire software program is deployed—for example, a new version of an existing application.
• Packaged Release: is a combination of many changes—for example, an operating system image which also contains specific applications.


Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Technology_Infrastructure_Library#ICT_Infrastructure_Management
http://searchdatacenter.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid80_gci212346,00.html

---MIS Assignment # 5---

The technology which surrounds almost everyone in the modern society, affects both work and leisure activities. Technology contains information that many would rather it did not have. It influences minds in good and bad ways, and it allows people to share information which they would otherwise not be able to attain. Even if a person does not own a computer or have credit cards, there is information on a computer somewhere about everyone. The technology which is just now beginning to be manipulated and harnessed is affecting the minds of small children and adolescents in ways that could be harmful. It is affecting our immediate future. It also gives another form of communication and exchange of information which was not available before, information that is both good and bad.

Technology is one of the principal driving forces of the future; it is transforming our lives and shaping our future at rates unprecedented in history, with profound implications which we can't even begin to see or understand. Many different elements affect how satisfied we are with our lives. The impact of technology on these elements can change how safe, healthy and happy people feel.
How to overcome Barriers to Information Technology/ Information System? Here are some examples states hot to overcome these barriers.

Overcoming barriers to information
Brian Martin, The University of Wollongong

What stops timely public access to information that people need and want to know? The answer is relatively easy: a range of barriers to information access, such as bureaucratic secrecy, defamation law and corporate pressure on the media. What is the best way to remove these barriers? The answer to this question is much harder.
An information strategy is an organised way of moving towards a desirable information future, taking into account the current reality, available resources, opponents and obstacles. There aren’t many people acting on the basis of explicit grand strategies, but there are quite a few making valuable contributions. The sum total of efforts in the same general direction can be thought of as a de facto strategy.
So let’s look at some de facto strategies in the information sphere, to see what can be learned. To begin, it’s useful to spell out some specific obstacles to information access. I focus on five particular ones (Martin, 1998).

• Government and corporate influences on mass media range from heavy-handed attempts to stop stories to the subtle self-censorship deriving from a fear of offending advertisers or sources. Typical things covered up include embarrassing policy failures and corporate malfeasance. Pressure is normally applied to editors and journalists behind the scenes; this pressure is seldom justified publicly.

• Defamation law is used to stop publication of critical material about individuals and organisations. For example, politicians and entrepreneurs may threaten to sue, and seeing the costs of actual suits scares potential targets, leading to excessive caution even when defamation suits are unlikely. The stated rationale for defamation is protection of reputation, but it is far more effective as a form of censorship. Strategic Lawsuits Against Public Participation (SLAPPs) most commonly use defamation law (Pring and Canan, 1996).

• Intellectual property is used to restrict access to cheap copies of information and to inhibit innovation building on proprietary materials. The cost of intellectual property reduces access to databases, scientific articles, photographs and music, while worries about legal action inhibit efforts to create improved or creatively modified versions of existing works. Intellectual property is supposed to promote innovation but often slows it by creating intellectual monopolies and by reducing the "intellectual commons"—the public domain—which is the foundation for inspiration and innovation.

• Bureaucratic controls, especially in government and corporate organisations, are used to prevent disclosure of inside information. Employees know an enormous amount about corruption and bad policy but are subject to serious reprisals if they speak out. The usual rationale for organisational secrecy is efficiency; routine leaks by senior bureaucrats reveal a double standard. The power of the bureaucratic hierarchy induces conformity in most employees.

• Misleading information is produced in vast quantities by advertisers, governments and other vested interests, overloading people and making it hard to recognise what is really important. The constant diet of biased and inadequate information leads to confusion and cynicism, while independent sources of information are relegated to the sidelines. Production of misleading information is justified as freedom of speech.

Lack of adequate financial support is top IT implementation barrier.

Financial pressures are a powerful limitation on capital investment in information technology. The top three IT implementation barriers cited by 2001 survey respondents are lack of adequate financial support for IT (21%), difficulty proving IT quantifiable benefits/ROI (15%), and vendors’ inability to effectively deliver product or service to respondents’ satisfaction (14%). Although it is still a top concern, difficulty in proving ROI has decreased in significance from 22% last year.

Accessing capital and demonstrating return-on-investment are not the only challenges. While recruiting and retaining high-quality IT staff was mentioned, staffing concerns dropped for the second year in a row; only 6% of respondents cited it as a barrier, compared to 15% in 2000, and 23% in 1999.

I believe that every company has its own Information System or Information Technology Barriers, same with the company I adopted, they also facing this rampant situation in processing high technologies. Here are some obstacles in Information Management which also encountered most of the company today.

Obstacles to information sharing and their management

1. What are the obstacles to information-sharing?

Human resource problems
• Insufficient skilled management in information-gathering and retrieving information
• Insufficient trained personnel at all levels
• Insufficient communication skills

Technical resource problems
• Need for modern information systems
• Difficulties in setting up information programme
• Problems in data processing
• Technical constraints to reproducing or copying documents
• Decoding statistics collected and the structure of statistical reporting
• Time factor in the collection and updating of information
• Need for qualitative aspects of information

Physical resource problems
• Need for publishing houses
• Need for documentation centres

Financial problems
• Need for funds for processing, printing and dissemination of information

Communication problems
• Production of incomprehensible information
• Insufficient understanding of the objectives, goals and aims of programmes
• Top-down approach
• Languages: media of communication
• Information-filtering
• Untargeted information
• Insufficient understanding among interest groups

Operational problems
• Need for co-ordination and networking among professionals and educational institutions
• Need for supportive policy to release information
• Insufficient access to information source
• Confidentiality
• Redundancy of information
• Nature of policy directives
• Need for identifying sources of information
• Centralization of activities
• Need for systematic documentation

Psychological and other problems
• Need for mutual trust between professionals and administrators
• Need for trust in information-sharing
• Need for of goodwill
• Competition between organizations
• Censorship
• War

2. How can these obstacles be effectively managed?

Human resource development
• Training
• Other capacity-building

Technical resource development
• Establish documentation centre (independent non-governmental institution for processing and disseminating information ?)
• Install modern information technology
• Create database
• Encourage small-scale publishing

Physical resource development
• Improve infrastructure
• Build documentation centre

Operational improvement
• Set clear policy guidelines on information dissemination
• Encourage government to have depository laws and enforce them
• Introduce information system
• Use mass media
• Follow a bottom-up approach
• Develop grassroots level inventory of information
• Create awareness of the value of information
• Identify user information needs
• Consult target groups
• Develop target-oriented and useable information
• Develop effective system of information management and dissemination; information should be simple, understandable and manageable
• Institute efficient and effective co-ordination and networking
• Encourage a free flow of information — horizontally and vertically

Common Barriers in Information Technology

• When information technology is designed so that it does not work with assistive technology, it creates barriers to people with disabilities.
• Software that requires the use of a mouse to perform commands is inaccessible to people with disabilities that cannot use a mouse.
• A copier that has controls outside of accessible reach ranges is inaccessible for some persons who use wheelchairs.
• A computer laboratory that is located in an inaccessible building cannot be accessed by people with disabilities.
• Some of the barriers listed above are primarily the responsibility of IT vendors, but educational entities should take these barriers into account in the procurement process.
•

Sources:
http://www.australianreview.net/digest/2002/04/martin.html
http://www.unesco.org/education/educprog/erd/english/wgesa/doc/ethiopia/appendice_2.htm

---HRM Assignment # 5---

We are task to Visit and identify a company website that has undergone HR downsizing and Identify the cause of downsizing and describe its processes. But before stating example of company which undergone downsizing let me first define and discuss its parameters and meaning.

Description

In the face of slowing or declining sales, companies often downsize their employee base as a means of cutting costs to boost profitability. In 2007, nearly 1 million employees lost their jobs in a mass layoff (50-plus employees) in the United States (an average of 180 workers in approximately 5,300 separate events, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics). The number of layoff events in the United States in September 2008 was the highest since September 2001. Although downsizing is effective for significant cost reduction, it often produces unintended side effects, such as damaged employee morale, poor public relations, future rightsizing hiring costs and an inability to quickly capitalize on opportunities when the economy improves. Skillful downsizing should help a company emerge from challenging economic conditions in stronger shape. Creative efforts to avoid downsizing include hiring freezes, salary cuts or freezes, shortened work weeks, restricted overtime hours, unpaid vacations and temporary plant closures. When downsizing proves unavoidable, the ultimate goal should be to eliminate nonessential company resources while minimizing the negative impact on the remaining organization.

Methodology

Downsizing can be effective if implemented appropriately. Companies must be careful to avoid sending the wrong messages to employees, shareholders and the media. Successful downsizing requires managers to:

• Evaluate the overall impact of downsizing. The total cost of downsizing-including both financial and non-financial costs-must be taken into account. Managers must calculate the present value of all costs and benefits associated with the cuts, including severance packages, lower employee productivity due to disorder or talent loss, eventual rehiring expenses, future rightsizing costs and the lost opportunity costs associated with not having the appropriate manpower to accelerate out of the downturn. Investing in areas customers care about-while competitors are cutting back-helps position the company to take or sustain the lead once conditions improve. The value created from downsizing should exceed the cost of lower employee morale and potential damage to the company's reputation;
• Develop a smooth downsizing process. It is crucial that managers invest aggressively in upfront planning for the job cuts. A company typically forms a committee to determine the appropriate level of downsizing and creates a process that takes into account the best interests of the company and the shareholders. Other important activities are training managers to conduct layoffs and assisting former employees in their job searches.
Common Uses

Companies use downsizing to:
• Reduce costs;
• Rightsize resources relative to market demand;
• Signal that the company is taking proactive steps to adjust to changing business needs;
• Take advantage of cost synergies after a merger;
• Release the least-productive resources.


10 Ways To Survive Your Company's Reorganization, Takeover, Downsizing, or Other Major Change.
By Morton C. Orman, M.D. Copyright © 1995-2002 M.C. Orman, MD, FLP

Many companies today are under intense economic pressure. Reorganizations, takeovers, mergers, downsizings, joint ventures, and other major changes are extremely common, as companies try to grow and survive.
These changes present new challenges and demands for everyone, from the C.E.O to the telephone receptionist. All members of the organization must therefore learn to cope with change or suffer consequences.
When change is not handled well, additional loss of jobs can occur. In addition, demoralization of the work force; increased worker turnover; decreased cooperation and teamwork; and increased levels of stress, anxiety, absenteeism, illness, and mistakes can follow.
The purpose of this Special Report is to highlight eighteen principles that are useful for coping with organizational change. While all eighteen of these principles may not apply to your situation, please read through the entire list to find those that do appeal to you.

1. BE PREPARED FOR CHANGE
Change is--and always has been--an inevitable part of life. In today's business climate, however, the pace of change has definitely increased.
Since most people normally hate to go through change, you can easily understand how today's pace of change can be stressful for many employees.
Most of us prefer established routines. We like to feel secure, stable, and familiar with our responsibilities. The one thing we hate most is uncertainty--uncertainty about our jobs, our future, our status in the organization, the role we are expected to play, and what other changes might be coming down the pike.
Unfortunately, most businesses are forced to make changes today just to survive. Global transformations require speedy adjustments. Local and national economic forces must be recognized and responded to promptly. New sources of competition and new technologies suddenly appear out of nowhere.
Like successful professional athletic teams, most businesses today must continually make changes to remain competitive.
Thus, instead of fearing change, resisting it, or hoping it won't ever happen to you, it's much better to prepare yourself mentally for the inevitable changes that are likely to occur.
Start today by imagining how you could cope with sudden, massive change. Think about likely scenarios and then brainstorm, on your own or with others, about how you might best respond.
Assume that the "rug could get pulled from beneath you" at any time. Then, if this happens, you won't be caught off guard. You'll already be psychologically and emotionally ready.
If the changes never come, you'll still be better off. Having prepared yourself in advance will enable you to feel much more confident and secure in your normal day- to-day activities.

2. EXPRESS SADNESS, LOSS, ANXIETY ABOUT THE FUTURE
When change does occur, don't pretend it isn't painful. Yes, change can bring new opportunities for personal growth, accomplishment, and organizational success. But it also causes feelings of sadness, loss, and anxiety about the future. These are normal human responses.
When people get laid off or fired, everybody hurts. We feel for our friends and coworkers. We empathize with their pain, anger, and sadness. In fact, we may have our own similar feelings to deal with, as new demands and responsibilities suddenly come our way.
When people get promoted, when organizational relationships change, or when our own job responsibilities become altered, there is a normal reaction of sadness, anxiety, and loss.
One of the worst things you can do when this happens is to pretend everything is "just fine." Even if you agree intellectually that the changes are necessary, emotionally you still may have some painful, negative reactions to deal with.
Unfortunately, today's business culture has little regard for honest human emotions. Expressing or even acknowledging negative feelings is considered "inappropriate." Workers are expected to be upbeat, positive, and "team players" all the time. While this is a laudable goal, there should also be room for people to express heart-felt negativity as well.
Truly enlightened business leaders know this. During times of significant change, they actively solicit negative feelings from their workers. They know that denying these feelings or trying to suppress their expression will only make things worse.

3. WATCH OUT FOR UNREALISTIC EXPECTATIONS
Unrealistic expectations can be a tremendous source of stress and unnecessary suffering. Unfortunately, when organizations undergo downsizings, restructurings, or other major changes, a whole host of unhealthy, unreasonable expectations frequently arise.
Upper management may expect, for example, that increased productivity will quickly occur, even though the work force has been seriously reduced. Or, management may expect they can impose any changes they want, without consider-ing how employees feel about them.
Employees, on the other hand, might expect that management should always act in a caring and compassionate manner. They might expect better communication from company leaders; more sensitivity to their feelings and needs; or more respect for their health, well-being, and family responsibilities.
While all of these things may be important for good employer-employee relationships, to expect them to be forthcoming from management (without encouragement from the rank-and-file) is to invite disappointment, resentment, and low morale.

4. DON'T LET YOURSELF OR OTHERS BE ABUSED
During times of change, it is common to let yourself and others be easily abused. When workers have been fired or laid off, there is a natural tendency to wonder if you might be next. This climate of fear might prevent you from speaking up forcefully when excessive or unreasonable demands are placed upon you. Anxiety quickly spreads throughout the entire workforce, making it even more difficult to obtain support for questioning unreasonable company policies.
But sometimes, questioning policies is healthy and appropriate. If you feel that you or fellow workers are being unfairly abused, try to tactfully broach this subject with your immediate superiors. Try to do this in a way that isn't offensive or that doesn't make you appear to be lazy, uncooperative, or unwilling to do your share. Yes, there is always a risk when you make such a move. You could easily get fired or be branded as a troublemaker. But if you truly have your company's interests at heart, you may be able to negotiate a more fair and humane work environment for all concerned.
After all, if the remaining workforce is angry and demoralized, how could this possibly be good for business?

5. ACKNOWLEDGE ANY INCREASED PRESSURES, DEMANDS, OR WORKLOADS
One of the biggest mistakes most companies make when they downsize or restructure is they fail to acknowledge the increased pressures, demands, and workloads that temporarily fall upon remaining employees.
Sometimes, retained workers are asked to do the work of two or three individuals with little appreciation or acknowledgement. Their salaries are not increased commensurately or perhaps even at all. The resources made available to them are often very lean or nonexistent. While at the very same time, the demands on their productivity might be significantly increased!
All of this could occur without even a word of thanks or gratitude from the company leaders who ultimately benefit from such an arrangement.
Whether your company realizes how short-sighted this failure of recognition is, you don't have to compound this mistake. Be sure to regularly acknowledge to yourself and to your coworkers if your responsibilities have been substantially increased. While it may take time for you to successfully readjust, always strive to acknowledge whatever is true for you at the moment.
Discuss your feelings with your family, friends, and loved ones. Consider discussing them with your superiors, if you think this would be appropriate. Just don't make the mistake of suppressing your feelings, denying them, or pretending they aren't really there.

6. PROTECT YOUR LEISURE TIME
When companies undergo change, there is usually plenty of extra work to be done. Suddenly, people begin working through their lunch times. They can't find time to play golf, take a vacation, or even travel to their local fitness club. They begin to come home later and later in the evening, and they often find themselves back in the office on weekends and holidays.
This is a very dangerous pattern to fall into. It can easily grow into a generally accepted mentality. Remember, just because everybody else in your organization starts acting insane, you don't have to go along.
Fight against this common trend by protecting your leisure time, as best you can. Realize that during times of change and increased stress, it's actually more important to get away from your job and have some time each day for yourself. That way, you'll be refreshed, energetic, and much more productive than all those people who spend all their time on the job.

7. DON'T IGNORE YOUR FAMILY
In addition to maintaining time for yourself, it's also important not to forget your family. Spouses, children, and other family members can be excellent sources of emotional support when times are tough at work. But they won't be in a very loving or supportive mood, if all you do is neglect them in favor of your job.
Sure work often takes priority, but you family should be elevated to an equal priority as well. If you put too much emphasis on just one of these areas, and neglect the other, you're eventually going to find yourself in trouble.

8. DON'T TURN TO ALCOHOL, DRUGS, FOOD OR OTHER CHEMICAL COPING STRATEGIES
During times of increased stress, people often look for rapid and easy means of symptom relief. Headaches, muscle aches, nervousness, irritability, and sleep disturbances can all be very disturbing.
Please avoid the temptation to use alcohol, drugs, or other chemical coping methods to obtain relief from these common symptoms. Also watch out for tendencies to overeat, skip meals, or drastically alter your diet in response to increased pressures or an expanded work load.
While most of these coping strategies can make you feel better in the short run, they each have serious (sometimes even fatal) long-term consequences.
It's always better to use natural, non-chemical coping methods. Try to exercise more, communicate more, and set time aside each day to relax. Don't deprive your body of sleep or proper nutrition. You'll need both of these to cope with the many new demands that you might face.
If your symptoms don't respond to these natural measures, or if you feel yourself turning toward alcohol, drugs, or other harmful behaviors, DON'T GIVE IN. Pick up the phone and make an appointment with your doctor or other trusted health professional. Be totally honest about your problems and listen carefully to what they recommend. If you don't have a family doctor, get one. Whatever you do, don't succumb to taking the easy way out.

9. REMAIN UPBEAT AND POSITIVE
Even though you may be feeling stressed, angry, or scared about your future, you still need to remain upbeat and positive in most things you do. When organiza-tions change, the climate should remain positive, even though individual members of the organization may be having all sorts of negative or uncertain feelings.
I know this sounds contradictory, but it's not. Acknowledging any negative feelings you might be harboring actually improves your ability to remain upbeat and optimistic! When you're willing to look at all sides of your company's reorganization or change, your ability to notice the positives, as well as the negatives, improves. Then you can choose to focus on the positives, rather than dwell on the negatives.
Please be clear about this very important point. I am not saying you should "pretend" you are upbeat when you are really feeling down. What I am saying is that if you force yourself to tell the whole truth, you'll see both the positive and negative aspects of any major change. This expanded perspective alone will almost always help you feel more positive and upbeat, without having to deny your feelings to the contrary.
You can then use your powers as a creative human being to focus on just the positives (and help others in your organization to do the same) because you know from past experiences that this is a wise thing to do.
If a few key people in each organization or department take on this role as a positive emotional leader, it will quickly spread to other employees as well. If nobody steps forward to remind people of the truth, it's easy for company employees to remain stuck in a chronic state of negativity.

10. GET CREATIVE
One of the best ways to cope with organizational change is to "rev up" your natural powers for creative intervention.
Most problems are amenable to creative, innovative solutions. The only thing that usually keeps these solutions from arising is our own internal barriers and self- imposed restrictions.
Creative problem solving always involves risks. Proposing a new idea invites criticism from others. What if the idea fails? What if business losses occur? What if things end up worse than before?
You've got to be willing to accept such risks if you're going to be free to think creatively. Trust yourself and others around you to recognize any really horrible idea before it gets implemented. Then give yourself permission to swing out and think creatively--allowing any and all ideas to come to mind. Many companies have regular "brainstorming" sessions for just this purpose. During times of reorganization and change, these creative sessions are very important. Time should be set aside to make them a common occurrence.

This is an example of Company which undergone downsizing:

AtheroGenics (AGIX) Cuts Headcount by 40%; to Record One-Time Charge of $400K in Q3:

September 23, 2008 4:47 PM EDT

In a Form 8-K, AtheroGenics, Inc. (Nasdaq: AGIX) announced that on September 19, the company reduced its employee headcount by approximately 40% to a current staff of 30 employees. In addition, the Company has also eliminated approximately 20 open positions as a result of the downsizing. The Company is providing severance to employees affected by the workforce reduction, resulting in a one-time charge of approximately $400,000 related to the severance benefits, which will be paid in Q308.


Source:
http://www.bain.com/management_tools/tools_downsizing.asp?groupcode=2
http://financepub.blogspot.com/2008/10/list-of-companies-that-are-downsizing.html
http://www.streetinsider.com/Corporate+News/AtheroGenics+